第二次世界大戦
第二次世界大戦や第二次世界大戦が多いと略される、第二次世界大戦や第二次世界大戦があったグローバルな戦争それは関与1939年から1945年まで続いた、世界の国々の大半を、すべての-including大国二つの対向-forming軍事同盟を:連合国と枢軸国。30カ国以上からの1億人以上の人員が直接関与する総力戦では、主要な参加者は戦争努力の背後に彼らの経済的、産業的、科学的能力全体を投げ入れました、民間資源と軍事資源の区別を曖昧にします。航空機は紛争で主要な役割を果たし、人口密集地への戦略爆撃を可能にし、核兵器の開発により、戦争での核兵器の使用は2つだけでした。第二次世界大戦は人類史上最も致命的な紛争であり、7000万から8500万人の死者を出し、その大多数は民間人でした。ジェノサイド(ホロコーストを含む)、飢餓、虐殺、病気のために何千万人もの人々が亡くなりました。軸の敗北をきっかけに、ドイツと日本は占領された、との戦争犯罪の裁判が行われたドイツ人に対してと日本の指導者。
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第二次世界大戦は、1939年9月1日、ナチスドイツがアドルフヒトラーの下でポーランドに侵攻したときに始まったと一般に考えられています。イギリスとフランスは、その後の戦争を宣言した3日。1939年8月の独ソ不可侵条約の下で、ドイツとソビエト連邦はポーランドを分割し、フィンランド、ルーマニア、バルト三国全体で「勢力圏」をマークしました。1939年後半から1941年初頭にかけて、一連のキャンペーンと条約で、ドイツはヨーロッパ大陸の大部分を征服または支配し、イタリアおよび日本と(後に他の国とともに)枢軸国同盟を結成しました。北アフリカと東アフリカでのキャンペーンの開始と1940年半ばのフランスの崩壊に続いて、戦争は主にヨーロッパ軸勢力と大英帝国の間で続き、バルカンでの戦争、イギリスの空中戦、ブリッツでした。英国の、そして大西洋の戦い。1941年6月22日に、ドイツは欧州枢軸国主導ソ連の侵攻を開いて、東部戦線、歴史の中で戦争の最大の土地の劇場を決定的にドイツ語、および枢軸国をトラップドイツ国防軍では、消耗戦。
向けた日本、支配アジア太平洋地域があった戦争でと中国の共和国1941年12月には1937年で、日本はほぼ同時でアメリカとイギリスの領土を攻撃し、東南アジアや中部太平洋に対する攻勢を含め、上の攻撃米国が日本との戦争を宣言することを余儀なくされたパールハーバーの米国艦隊。欧州枢軸国は連帯して米国に宣戦布告した。日本はすぐに西太平洋の大部分を占領しましたが、ミッドウェー海戦に敗れた後、1942年にその前進は停止しました。その後、ドイツとイタリアは北アフリカとソビエト連邦のスターリングラードで敗北しました。東部戦線での一連のドイツの敗北、シシリーとイタリア本土への連合軍の侵攻、太平洋での連合軍の攻撃など、1943年の主要な後退は、枢軸国の主導権を犠牲にし、すべての戦線で戦略的撤退を余儀なくされました。1944年、西側連合国はドイツ占領下のフランスに侵攻し、ソビエト連邦は領土の喪失を取り戻し、ドイツとその同盟国に目を向けました。1944年から1945年にかけて、日本はアジア本土で逆転に見舞われ、連合国は日本海軍を不自由にし、西太平洋の主要な島々を占領しました。
ヨーロッパでの戦争はの解放と締結ドイツ占領、そして西部連合国によってドイツの侵攻で最高潮に達する、とソ連、ベルリンの秋ソ連軍にヒトラーの自殺とドイツの無条件降伏に1945年5月8日。以下のポツダム宣言1945年7月26日に連合国によって、その条件で降伏する日本の拒否を、米国は、最初の原子爆弾を落としたの日本の都市に広島8月6日、およびに、長崎8月9日に、。日本列島への差し迫った侵略、追加の原子爆弾投下の可能性、そして日中戦争へのソビエトの参入と満州侵攻に直面して、日本は8月15日に降伏する意向を発表し、9月2日に降伏文書に署名した。1945年、連合国のためにアジアでの完全な勝利を確固たるものにしました。
第二次世界大戦は、地球の政治的整合性と社会構造を変えました。国際連合(UN)の協力の国際を育成し、将来の紛争、そして勝利を防止するために設立された大国-中国、フランス、ソ連、英国、米国を-なった常任そのの安全保障理事会。ソビエト連邦と米国はライバルの超大国として台頭し、ほぼ半世紀にわたる冷戦の舞台を設定しました。ヨーロッパの荒廃をきっかけに、その大国の影響力は弱まり、アフリカとアジアの脱植民地化を引き起こしました。産業が被害を受けたほとんどの国は、景気回復と拡大に向かって動きました。特にヨーロッパにおける政治的統合は、将来の敵対行為を未然に防ぎ、戦前の敵意を終わらせ、共通のアイデンティティの感覚を築くための努力として始まりました。
年表
ヨーロッパでの戦争は一般に1939年9月1日に始まったと考えられています[1] [2]ドイツのポーランド侵攻から始まります。イギリスとフランスは2日後にドイツに宣戦布告しました。太平洋戦争の開始日には、1937年7月7日の日中戦争の開始[3] [4]、または1931年9月19日の満州への以前の日本の侵攻が含まれます。[5] [6] [7]
日清戦争とヨーロッパとその植民地での戦争が同時に起こり、1941年に2つの戦争が合併したと主張したイギリスの歴史家AJPテイラーに続くものもあります。この記事では従来の年代測定を使用しています。第二次世界大戦に時々使用される他の開始日には、1935年10月3日のイタリアのアビシニア侵攻が含まれます。[8]英国の歴史家アントニービーバー は、第二次世界大戦の始まりを、日本とモンゴル軍との間で戦ったカルキンゴルの戦いと見なしています。1939年5月から9月までのソビエト連邦。[9]他の人々は、スペイン内戦を第二次世界大戦の始まりまたは前奏曲と見なしている。[10] [11]
戦争の終結の正確な日付もまた、普遍的に合意されていません。一般的には、戦争が終わっていることを一度に受け入れられた休戦1945年8月14日(のVJの日ではなく、正式なよりも、)日本の降伏正式に1945年9月2日に、アジアでの戦争を終えました。日本と連合国の間の平和条約は1951年に調印された。[12]ドイツの将来に関する1990年の条約は、東西ドイツの再統一を可能にし、第二 次世界大戦後のほとんどの問題を解決した。[13]日本とソビエト連邦の間で正式な平和条約が調印されたことは一度もない。[14]
バックグラウンド
ヨーロッパ
第一次世界大戦は、根本的に変更されていた政治の敗北で、ヨーロッパのマップを中央パワーズ-includingオーストリア-ハンガリー、ドイツ、ブルガリアとオスマン帝国-および1917年の電力のボルシェビキ発作におけるロシアの設立につながった、ソ連連合。一方、勝利の第一次世界大戦の連合国フランス、など、ベルギー、イタリア、ルーマニア、そしてギリシャ、獲得領土、そして新しい国民国家はから作成されたオーストリア=ハンガリー帝国の崩壊とオスマン帝国とロシア帝国。

将来の世界大戦を防ぐために、国際連盟は1919年のパリ講和会議中に設立されました。組織の主な目標は、集団安全保障、軍事および海軍の軍縮を通じて武力紛争を防止し、平和的な交渉と仲裁を通じて国際紛争を解決することでした。
強いにもかかわらず、平和主義感情世界大戦後の I、[15] 民族統一主義とrevanchist ナショナリズムは、同期間中にいくつかのヨーロッパ諸国に出現しました。これらの感情は、ヴェルサイユ条約によって課せられた重大な領土的、植民地的、および財政的損失のために、ドイツで特に顕著でした。条約の下で、ドイツは自国の領土とすべての海外の所有物の約13%を失いましたが、他の州のドイツ併合は禁止され、賠償が課され、国の軍隊の規模と能力に制限が課されました。[16]
ドイツ帝国は1918年から1919年のドイツ革命で解散し、後にワイマール共和国として知られる民主主義政府が創設されました。戦間期には、新共和国の支持者と右と左の両方の強硬派の反対者の間で争いが見られました。イタリアは、三国協商の同盟国として、戦後の領土的利益を上げていました。しかし、イタリアのナショナリストは、イギリスとフランスがイタリアの戦争への参入を確保するという約束が和平合意で果たされなかったことに腹を立てた。1922年から1925年まで、ファシストが率いる運動ベニート・ムッソリーニは民族主義、とイタリアで権力を掌握全体主義、およびクラスcollaborationistの代表民主制を廃止した議題、社会主義、左翼とリベラル勢力を抑制し、かつ狙っ積極的な膨脹外交政策を追求イタリアを世界大国にし、「新ローマ帝国」の創設を約束します。[17]

アドルフ・ヒトラーは、1923年にドイツ政府を転覆させようとして失敗した後、1933年にパウル・フォン・ヒンデンブルクと国会議事堂が彼を任命したときに最終的にドイツ首相になりました。彼は民主主義を廃止し、人種差別的な過激な世界秩序の改正を支持し、すぐに大規模な再軍備キャンペーンを開始しました。[18]一方、フランスは同盟を確保するために、イタリアが植民地の所有物として望んでいたエチオピアでのフリーハンドを許可した。ザール盆地の領土がドイツと合法的に再会した1935年初頭に状況は悪化し、ヒトラーはヴェルサイユ条約を拒否し、再軍備プログラムを加速し、徴兵制を導入しました。[19]
イギリス、フランス、イタリアは、軍事のグローバル化に向けた重要な一歩であるドイツを封じ込めるために、1935年4月にストレーザ戦線を結成しました。しかし、その6月、英国はドイツと独立した海軍協定を結び、以前の制限を緩和しました。ソビエト連邦は、東ヨーロッパの広大な地域を占領するというドイツの目標に懸念を抱き、フランスとの相互援助条約を起草しました。しかし、発効する前に、フランスソビエト協定は国際連盟の官僚機構を通過する必要があり、それは本質的に歯がない状態になりました。[20]ヨーロッパとアジアでの出来事に関係する米国は、同じ年の8月に中立法を可決した。[21]
ヒトラーがベルサイユと反抗ロカルノ条約により、ラインラントをremilitarising原因の政策にはほとんど反対に遭遇し、1936年3月に宥和。[22] 1936年10月、ドイツとイタリアはローマ-ベルリン軸を形成した。1か月後、ドイツと日本は、イタリアが翌年に参加した防共協定に署名しました。[23]
アジア
国民党(KMT)当事者が中国で発売統一キャンペーンに対する地域の軍閥をし、名目上は1920年代半ばに中国を統一し、しかしすぐに巻き込まれた内戦かつてに対する中国共産党の同盟国[24]と新たな地域軍閥。1931年、政府がアジアを統治する権利と見なした最初のステップとして、中国で長い間影響力を求めてきたますます軍事化する 大日本帝国[25]は、満州に侵攻し、満州を確立する口実として満州事変を上演しました。傀儡政権の満州国。[26]
中国は国際連盟に日本の満州侵攻を阻止するよう訴えた。日本は満州への侵入で非難された後、国際連盟から撤退した。その後、1933年に塘沽停戦が調印されるまで、両国は上海、レーエ、河北でいくつかの戦いを繰り広げました。その後、中国のボランティア軍は満州、チャハール、綏遠での日本の侵略に対する抵抗を続けました。[27] 1936年の西安事件の後、国民党と共産軍は、日本に反対する統一戦線を提示するための停戦に合意した。[28]
戦前の出来事
イタリアのエチオピア侵攻(1935年)

第二次エチオピア戦争は簡単なのだった植民地戦争戦争は侵略で始まった月1936年1935年10月に始まり、終わったエチオピア帝国(としても知られているアビシニアの武装勢力による)イタリア王国(レグノさd 'イタリア)、イタリアのソマリランドとエリトリアから発売されました。[29]戦争はエチオピアの軍事占領と、新しく作られたイタリア領東アフリカの植民地(アフリカオリエンタルイタリアーナ、またはAOI)への併合をもたらした。さらに、それは平和を維持するための力としての国際連盟の弱さを明らかにしました。イタリアとエチオピアはどちらも加盟国でしたが、前者がリーグ規約の第X条に明らかに違反した場合、リーグはほとんど何もしませんでした。[30]イギリスとフランスは、侵略に対してイタリアに制裁を課すことを支持したが、制裁は完全には施行されておらず、イタリアの侵略を終わらせることができなかった。[31]イタリアはその後、オーストリアを吸収するというドイツの目標に対する反対意見を取り下げた。[32]
スペイン内戦(1936–1939)

スペインで内戦が勃発したとき、ヒトラーとムッソリーニはフランシスコ・フランコ将軍が率いるナショナリストの反政府勢力に軍事的支援を貸しました。イタリアはナチスよりもナショナリストを大いに支援しました。ムッソリーニは合計で70,000人以上の地上部隊と6,000人の航空要員、そして約720機の航空機をスペインに派遣しました。[33]ソビエト連邦は、スペイン共和国の既存の政府を支持した。国際旅団として知られる3万人以上の外国人ボランティアもナショナリストと戦った。ドイツとソビエト連邦の両方が、この代理戦争を彼らの最も進んだ武器と戦術と戦うためにテストする機会として使用しました。ナショナリストは1939年4月に内戦に勝利しました。現在独裁者であるフランコは、第二次世界大戦中も公式には中立でしたが、一般的にはアクシスを支持していました。[34]ドイツとの彼の最大の協力は、東部戦線で戦うために志願兵を派遣することでした。[35]
日本の中国侵攻(1937)

1937年7月、日本は、盧溝橋事件を扇動した後、旧中国帝国の首都である北京を占領しました。これは、中国全土を侵略する日本のキャンペーンで最高潮に達しました。[36]ソビエトは、物資支援を提供するために中国と不可侵条約に迅速に署名し、中国のドイツとの以前の協力を事実上終わらせた。9月から11月まで、日本は攻撃太原を、従事国民党軍をXinkouの周りに、[37]と戦った共産軍をPingxingguanに。[38] [39]総統蒋介石は彼の展開最高の軍隊をするために上海を守るが、戦いの3ヶ月後、上海は下落しました。日本人は1937年12月に首都南京を占領し、中国軍を押し戻し続けた。南京の崩壊後、数万から数十万の中国の民間人と武装解除された戦闘員が日本人によって殺害された。[40] [41]
1938年3月、中国国民党軍が台児荘で最初の大勝利を収めましたが、5月に徐州 市が日本人に占領されました。[42] 1938年6月、中国軍は黄河を氾濫させて日本軍の前進を停滞させた。この作戦は中国人が武漢で防御を準備するための時間を買ったが、都市は10月までに占領された。[43]日本の軍事的勝利は、日本が達成したいと望んでいた中国の抵抗の崩壊をもたらさなかった。代わりに、中国政府は内陸部を重慶に移し、戦争を続けた。[44] [45]
日ソ国境紛争

1930年代半ばから後半にかけて、満州国の日本軍はソビエト連邦やモンゴルと散発的に国境を衝突させた。日本の北方への拡大を強調した北進論の日本の教義は、この時期に帝国軍によって支持されました。1939年のカルキンゴルでの日本の敗北、進行中の日中戦争[46]、そしてソビエトとの中立を追求する同盟国のナチスドイツでは、この政策を維持することは難しいでしょう。日本とソ連は最終的に1941年4月に中立協定に調印し、日本は南進論を採用し、海軍が推進し、南進論に焦点を合わせ、最終的には米国と西側連合国との戦争に至った。[47] [48]
ヨーロッパの職業と協定

ヨーロッパでは、ドイツとイタリアがより攻撃的になりました。1938年3月、ドイツはオーストリアを併合し、他のヨーロッパ諸国からの反応をほとんど引き起こしませんでした。[49]ヒトラーは勇気づけられて、主にドイツ人の人口を抱えるチェコスロバキアの地域であるズデーテン地方にドイツの主張を押し付け始めた。間もなく、英国とフランスは英国のネヴィル・チェンバレン首相の宥和政策に従い、チェコスロバキア政府の意向に反して締結されたミュンヘン会談で、これ以上の領土要求がないという約束と引き換えに、この領土をドイツに譲り渡した。[50]その後まもなく、ドイツとイタリアはチェコスロバキアにハンガリーに追加の領土を譲渡することを強制し、ポーランドはチェコスロバキアのテッシェナーシュ地域を併合した。[51]
ドイツの表明された要求はすべて合意によって満たされましたが、個人的にヒトラーはイギリスの干渉が彼がチェコスロバキアのすべてを一度の作戦で捕らえることを妨げたことに激怒しました。その後の演説で、ヒトラーはイギリスとユダヤ人の「戦争商人」を攻撃し、1939年1月にイギリス海軍の覇権に挑戦するためにドイツ海軍の大規模な増強を密かに命じました。1939年3月には、ドイツがチェコスロバキアの残りの部分に侵入し、その後ドイツに分割ボヘミアとモラヴィアの保護領とプロドイツのクライアントの状態、スロバキア共和国。[52]ヒトラーはまた、1939年3月20日にリトアニアに最後の最後を届け、クライペダ地方(以前はドイツのメメランド)の譲歩を余儀なくされた。[53]

非常に警戒し、ヒトラーが自由都市ダンツィヒにさらなる要求をしたことで、イギリスとフランスはポーランドの独立への支持を保証しました。イタリアが1939年4月にアルバニアを征服したとき、同じ保証がルーマニア王国とギリシャ王国に拡大されました。[54]直後にフランコ-英国、ポーランド、ドイツ、イタリアへの誓約をして、自分の同盟を正式な鋼鉄協約。[55]ヒトラーは、イギリスとポーランドがドイツを「取り囲もうとした」と非難し、英独海軍協定とドイツ・ポーランド不可侵条約を放棄した。[56]
ドイツ軍がポーランド国境に対して動員を続けたため、状況は8月下旬に一般的な危機に達した。8月23日、フランス、イギリス、ソビエト連邦間の軍事同盟に関する三者間の交渉が行き詰まったとき[57]、ソビエト連邦はドイツと不可侵条約に調印した。[58]この協定には、ドイツとソビエトの「影響範囲」(ドイツの場合はポーランド西部とリトアニア、ソビエト連邦の場合はポーランド東部、フィンランド、エストニア、ラトビア、ベッサラビア)を定義する秘密の議定書があり、ポーランドを継続するという問題が提起された。独立。[59]協定は、ポーランドに対するキャンペーンに対するソビエトの反対の可能性を中和し、ドイツが第一 次世界大戦のように二正面作戦の見通しに直面する必要がないことを保証した。その直後、ヒトラーは攻撃を命じた。 8月26日に続行するが、英国がポーランドとの正式な相互援助協定を締結し、イタリアが中立を維持すると聞いた後、彼はそれを延期することを決定した。[60]
戦争を回避するための直接交渉を求める英国の要請に応えて、ドイツはポーランドに要求を出しましたが、それは関係を悪化させる口実としてのみ機能しました。[61] 8月29日、ヒトラーは、ポーランドの全権大使がダンツィヒの引き渡しを交渉するために、そしてドイツの少数派が脱退に投票するポーランド回廊での国民投票を許可するために、すぐにベルリンに旅行することを要求した。[61]ポーランド人はドイツの要求に従うことを拒否し、8月30日から31日の夜、イギリス大使ネヴィル・ヘンダーソンとの嵐の会合で、リッベントロップはドイツがその主張を拒否したと見なしたと宣言した。[62]
戦争のコース
ヨーロッパで戦争が勃発(1939–40)

1939年9月1日、ドイツは侵略を開始する口実としていくつかの偽旗作戦を行った後、ポーランドを侵略しました。[63]戦争の最初のドイツの攻撃は、ヴェステルプラッテでのポーランドの防衛に対して起こった。[64]イギリスは軍事作戦を停止するためにドイツへの最後通牒と答え、そして最後通告を無視された後に9月3日に、フランス、英国、オーストラリア、続く、ドイツに宣戦布告し、ニュージーランド、南アフリカ、カナダ。同盟は、ザールラントへの慎重なフランスの調査を除いて、ポーランドに直接の軍事的支援を提供しなかった。[65]西側連合国はまた、ドイツの経済と戦争努力に損害を与えることを目的としたドイツの海上封鎖を開始した。[66]ドイツは、連合軍の商人と軍艦に対するUボート戦争を命じることで対応し、後に大西洋の戦いにエスカレートした。[67]

9月8日、ドイツ軍はワルシャワの郊外に到着しました。西側へのポーランドの反撃はドイツ軍の前進を数日間止めたが、ドイツ国防軍に追い抜かれ、包囲された。ポーランド軍の残党が突破し、ワルシャワを包囲しました。1939年9月17日、日本との停戦に署名した後、ソビエト連邦は、ポーランド国家が表面上は存在しなくなったという口実でポーランド東部に侵攻した[68]。[69] 9月27日、ワルシャワ駐屯軍はドイツ軍に 降伏し 、ポーランド軍の最後の大規模作戦部隊は10月6日に降伏した。軍事的敗北にもかかわらず、ポーランドは決して降伏しませんでした。代わりに、それはポーランド亡命政府を形成し、秘密の国家機構は占領下のポーランドに残った。[70]ポーランドの軍人のかなりの部分がルーマニアとバルト諸国に避難した。それらの多くは後に戦争の他の劇場でアクシスと戦った。[71]
ドイツはポーランドの西部を併合して中央部を占領し、ソビエト連邦はその東部を併合しました。ポーランドの領土の小さなシェアがリトアニアとスロバキアに譲渡されました。10月6日、ヒトラーは英国とフランスに公の平和の序曲をしましたが、ポーランドの将来はドイツとソビエト連邦によって独占的に決定されることになっていると言いました。提案は却下され[62]、ヒトラーはフランスに対する即時攻撃を命じ[72]、悪天候のため1940年春まで延期された。[73] [74] [75]

ソビエト連邦は、モロトフ・リッベントロップ協定の下でソビエトの「勢力圏」にあったバルト諸国(エストニア、ラトビア、リトアニア)に、これらの国にソビエト軍を駐留させることを規定した「相互援助協定」に署名することを強制した。その後すぐに、重要なソビエト軍の派遣団がそこに移されました。[76] [77] [78]フィンランドは同様の協定に署名することを拒否し、その領土の一部をソビエト連邦に譲渡することを拒否した。ソビエト連邦は1939年11月にフィンランドを侵略し[79]、ソビエト連邦は国際連盟から追放された。[80]圧倒的な数的優位性にもかかわらず、ソビエト軍の成功は控えめであり、フィンランドとソビエトの戦争は最小限のフィンランドの譲歩で1940年3月に終わった。[81]
1940年6月、ソビエト連邦はエストニア、ラトビア、リトアニア[77]と、ルーマニアのベッサラビア、ブコビナ北部、ヘルツァを強制的に併合しました。その間、ナチスとソビエトの政治的和解と経済協力[82] [83]は徐々に行き詰まり、[84] [85]、両州は戦争の準備を始めた。[86]
西ヨーロッパ(1940–41)

1940年4月、連合国が遮断しようとしていたスウェーデンからの鉄鉱石の輸送を保護するために、ドイツはデンマークとノルウェーに侵攻しました。[87]デンマークは数時間後に降伏し、ノルウェーは連合国の支援にもかかわらず2か月以内に征服された[88]。ノルウェーの作戦に対するイギリスの不満により、 1940年5月10日にウィンストンチャーチルが首相に任命された。[89]
同じ日に、ドイツはフランスに対する攻撃を開始しました。独仏国境にある強力なマジノ線の要塞を回避するために、ドイツは中立国であるベルギー、オランダ、ルクセンブルグに攻撃を仕掛けました。[90]ドイツ人はを通じて隣接する操作を行うアルデンヌ領域、[91]誤っ装甲車に対して不透過性の天然バリアとして連合国によって知覚されました。[92] [93]新しい電撃戦術の実施に成功したことにより、ドイツ国防軍は急速に海峡に進出し、ベルギーの連合軍を遮断し、リール近くのフランコベルギー国境の大釜に連合軍の大部分を閉じ込めた。イギリスは6月初旬までにかなりの数の連合軍を大陸から避難させることができたが、ほとんどすべての装備を放棄した。[94]
6月10日、イタリアはフランスを侵略し、フランスとイギリスの両方に宣戦布告しました。[95]ドイツ軍は弱体化したフランス軍に対抗して南に向きを変え、パリは 6月14日に彼らのところに倒れた。8日後、フランスはドイツと休戦協定を締結しました。これは、分割したドイツ語とイタリア占領ゾーン、[96]及び非占有臀部状態下ビシー体制は、これは、しかし正式中性、一般的にドイツで整列させました。フランスは艦隊を維持し、イギリスは ドイツによる押収を防ぐために7月3日に攻撃しました。[97]

バトルオブブリテン[98]は、7月初旬にドイツ空軍の海運と港への攻撃で始まりました。[99]イギリスはヒトラーの平和提供、拒否された[100]とドイツの航空優勢キャンペーン8月に始めたのが、破ることができませんでした戦闘機軍団を無期限延期強制的に、イギリスの提案ドイツの侵攻を。ドイツの戦略爆撃攻撃は、ロンドンやブリッツの他の都市への夜間攻撃で激化したが、イギリスの戦争努力を大幅に混乱させることはできず[99]、1941年5月に大部分が終了した。[101]
ドイツ海軍は、新たに占領されたフランスの港を利用して、大西洋でのイギリス海運に対してUボートを使用し、過度に拡張されたイギリス海軍に対して成功を収めました。[102]英国本国艦隊は27日に大きな勝利を獲得したことにより、1941年5月のドイツの戦艦沈没ビスマルクを。[103]
1939年11月、米国は中国と西側連合国を支援するための措置を講じており、連合国による「キャッシュアンドキャリー」購入を許可するように中立法を改正しました。[104] 1940年、ドイツがパリを占領した後、アメリカ海軍の規模は大幅に拡大した。9月、米国はさらに、アメリカの駆逐艦をイギリスの基地と交換することに合意しました。[105]それでも、アメリカ国民の大多数は、1941年まで紛争への直接的な軍事介入に反対し続けた。[106] 1940年12月、ルーズベルトはヒトラーを世界征服を計画していると非難し、交渉を役に立たないものとして除外し、米国は「民主主義の兵器庫」になり、英国の戦争努力を支援するためのレンドリース援助プログラムを推進する。[100]米国は、ドイツに対する本格的な攻撃に備えるための戦略的計画を開始した。[107]
1940年9月末、日独伊三国同盟は、枢軸国として日本、イタリア、ドイツを正式に統合しました。日独伊三国同盟は、枢軸国を攻撃したソビエト連邦を除いて、どの国も3つすべてに対して戦争を強いられると規定した。[108] Axisは、ハンガリー、スロバキア、ルーマニアが加わった1940年11月に拡大した。[109] ルーマニアとハンガリーは後にソビエト連邦に対する枢軸国の戦争に大きく貢献し、ルーマニアの場合は部分的にソビエト連邦に割譲された領土を奪還した。[110]
地中海(1940–41)

1940年6月初旬、イタリア空軍 はイギリスの所有物であるマルタを攻撃して包囲しました。夏の終わりから初秋にかけて、イタリアはイギリス領ソマリランドを征服し、イギリス領エジプトに侵攻しました。10月、イタリアはギリシャを攻撃しましたが、攻撃はイタリア人の大きな犠牲者で撃退されました。キャンペーンは数か月以内に終了し、領土がわずかに変更されました。[111]ドイツは、イタリアを支援し、ルーマニアの油田にとって潜在的な脅威となるイギリス軍がそこに足場を築くのを防ぎ、イギリスの地中海支配に対抗するためにバルカン半島への侵攻の準備を始めた。[112]
1940年12月、大英帝国軍はエジプトとイタリア領東アフリカでイタリア軍に対する反撃を開始しました。[113]攻撃は大成功でした。1941年2月初旬までに、イタリアはリビア東部の支配を失い、多数のイタリア軍が捕虜になりました。イタリア海軍はまた、海軍はによって手数料のうち、3隻のイタリアの戦艦を置くことで、大幅な敗北を被っターラントでキャリア攻撃、そして時にいくつかのより多くの軍艦を中和マタパン岬沖海戦。[114]

イタリアの敗北により、ドイツは北アフリカに遠征軍を配備するようになり、1941年3月末、ロンメルのアフリカ軍団 は攻撃を開始し、連邦軍を後退させました。[115] 1か月足らずで、枢軸国軍はエジプト西部に進出し、トブルク港を包囲した。[116]
1941年3月下旬までに、ブルガリアとユーゴスラビアは三国同盟に署名しました。しかし、ユーゴスラビア政府は2日後に親英民族主義者によって打倒されました。ドイツは、1941年4月6日から、ユーゴスラビアとギリシャの両方への同時侵攻で対応しました。両国は1か月以内に降伏を余儀なくされた。[117] 5月末にギリシャのクレタ島に空中侵入したことで、ドイツによるバルカン半島の征服が完了した。[118]枢軸国の勝利は迅速だったが、その後、戦争が終わるまで続いたユーゴスラビアの枢軸国占領に対して、激しい大規模なパルチザン戦争が勃発した。[119]
5月の中東では、連邦軍が、ヴィシーが支配するシリア内の基地からドイツの航空機によって支援されていたイラクでの蜂起を鎮圧しました。[120] 6月から7月の間に、彼らは自由フランスの支援を受けて、フランスの所有物であるシリアとレバノンに侵入し、占領した。[121]
ソビエト連邦への軸攻撃(1941年)

ヨーロッパとアジアの状況は比較的安定しており、ドイツ、日本、ソビエト連邦は準備をしました。資源が豊富なヨーロッパの財産を押収することにより、欧州戦争を活用するために、ドイツと日本の計画との緊張を搭載する警戒ソ連では東南アジア、2つの大国が署名した日ソ中立条約を4月1941年[122]対照的に、ドイツ人は着実にソビエト連邦への攻撃の準備をしていて、ソビエト国境に軍隊を集めていました。[123]
ヒトラーは、イギリスが戦争を終わらせることを拒否したのは、遅かれ早かれアメリカとソビエト連邦がドイツとの戦争に参加するという希望に基づいていると信じていた。[124]したがって、彼はドイツとソビエトとの関係を強化しようとするか、ソビエトを攻撃して排除することに失敗した。1940年11月、ソビエト連邦が三国同盟に参加するかどうかを決定するための交渉が行われました。ソビエトはある程度の関心を示したが、フィンランド、ブルガリア、トルコ、そして日本にドイツが容認できないと考えた譲歩を求めた。1940年12月18日、ヒトラーはソビエト連邦の侵攻に備えるための指令を出しました。[125]

1941年6月22日、イタリアとルーマニアの支援を受けたドイツは、バルバロッサ作戦でソビエト連邦に侵攻し、ドイツはソビエトが彼らに対して陰謀を企てたと非難しました。彼らはまもなくフィンランドとハンガリーに加わった。[126]この奇襲攻撃の主な標的[127]はバルト三国、モスクワ、ウクライナであり、カスピ海から白海までのアルカンゲルスク-アストラカン線の近くで1941年のキャンペーンを終わらせることを最終目標とした。ヒトラーの目的は、軍事力としてソ連を排除共産主義を根絶、生成した生存圏(「生活空間」)[128]によって、ネイティブの人口をdispossessing [129]ドイツの残りのライバルを倒すために必要な戦略的なリソースへのアクセスをして保証。[130]
が、赤軍は戦略的のために準備していたカウンター攻撃、戦争前に[131] バルバロッサは強制的にソ連の最高のコマンドを採用する戦略的な防衛を。夏の間、アクシスはソビエト領土に大きな利益をもたらし、人員と物資の両方に莫大な損失を与えました。しかし、8月中旬までに、ドイツ陸軍最高司令部は、かなり枯渇した中央軍集団センターの攻撃を一時停止し、第2装甲軍を迂回させて中央ウクライナとレニングラードに向かって前進する軍隊を強化することを決定しました。[132]キエフ攻撃を包囲四人のソビエト軍隊の排除をもたらす、圧倒的に成功した、と可能さらになさクリミアに予め及び工業開発東ウクライナ(ハリコフの最初の戦いを)。[133]

枢軸国軍の4分の3とその空軍の大部分がフランスと中央地中海から東部戦線に転用されたため[134]、イギリスは大戦略を再考するようになった。[135]で7月、英国とソ連が形成され、ドイツに対する軍事同盟を[136]と8月に、英国、米国が共同で発行した大西洋憲章戦後の世界のためにイギリスとアメリカの目標を概説しました。[137] 8月下旬、イギリスとソビエトは中立のイランに侵攻し、ペルシャ回廊、イランの油田を確保し、イランを通ってバク油田またはイギリス領インドに向かうアクシスの前進を先取りした。[138]
10月までに、ウクライナとバルト諸国でのアクシスの作戦目標は達成され、レニングラード[139]とセヴァストポリの包囲戦のみが続いた。[140]モスクワに対する大規模な攻撃が再開された。ますます厳しくなる天候の中での2か月間の激しい戦闘の後、ドイツ軍はモスクワの郊外にほぼ到着し、そこで疲れ果てた軍隊[141]は攻撃を停止せざるを得なくなりました。[142]枢軸国軍によって領土の大幅な拡大が行われたが、そのキャンペーンはその主な目的を達成できなかった。2つの主要都市がソビエトの手に残り、ソビエトの抵抗力は破られず、ソビエト連邦はそのかなりの部分を保持した。軍事的可能性。電撃戦の 段階ヨーロッパでの戦争のは終わりました。[143]
12月初旬までに、新たに動員された予備軍[144]により、ソビエトはアクシス軍との数値的同等性を達成することができた。[145]これだけでなく、知能データ東部のソ連軍の最小数は、日本によるいかなる攻撃抑止するのに十分であることが確立関東軍は、[146]が許さソ連が開始し、大規模な反撃を開始することを12月5日、正面に沿ってドイツ軍を西に100〜250 km(62〜155マイル)押しました。[147]
太平洋で戦争が勃発(1941年)
1931年の日本の偽旗 作戦、1937年のアメリカ砲艦USSパナイ号の日本砲撃、1937-38年の南京大虐殺の後、日米関係は悪化した。1939年、米国は貿易協定を延長しないことを日本に通知し、日本の拡大主義に反対する米国の世論は一連の経済制裁、輸出管理法につながり、化学物質、鉱物、軍事部品の日本への米国の輸出を禁止した。日本の政権に対する経済的圧力の高まり。[100] [148] [149] 1939年、日本は戦略的に重要な中国の都市である長沙に対して最初の攻撃を開始したが、9月下旬までに撃退された。[150]双方によるいくつかの攻撃にもかかわらず、日中戦争は1940年までに膠着状態に陥った。供給ルートを遮断することによって中国への圧力を高め、西側諸国との戦争の際に日本軍をより良い位置に置くために、日本は侵略した。1940年9月にインドシナ北部を占領した。[151]

中国の民族主義勢力は1940年初頭に大規模な反撃を開始した。8月、中国共産党は中国中部で攻撃を開始した。報復として、日本は共産主義者の人的および物的資源を削減するために占領地で厳しい措置を講じた。[152]中国共産党とナショナリスト軍の間の継続的な反感は、1941年1月に武力衝突で頂点に達し、事実上彼らの協力を終わらせた。[153] 3月、日本の第11軍は、中国の第19軍の本部を攻撃したが、錦江作戦中に撃退された。[154] 9月、日本は再び長沙市を占領しようとし、中国の民族主義勢力と衝突した。[155]
ヨーロッパでのドイツの成功は、日本が東南アジアのヨーロッパ政府への圧力を強めることを後押しした。オランダ政府はオランダ領東インドからの石油供給を日本に提供することに同意したが、彼らの資源への追加アクセスの交渉は1941年6月に失敗に終わった。[156] 1941年7月、日本はインドシナ南部に軍隊を派遣し、イギリスとオランダを脅かした。極東の所有物。米国、英国、およびその他の西側諸国政府は、この動きに反応して、日本の資産の凍結と完全な石油禁輸を行った。[157] [158]同時に、日本は西部でのドイツの侵略を利用することを意図して、ソビエト極東への侵攻を計画していたが、制裁後に作戦を断念した。[159]
1941年初頭以来、日米は緊張した関係を改善し、中国での戦争を終わらせるために交渉を行ってきた。これらの交渉の間に、日本はアメリカ人によって不十分であるとして却下された多くの提案を進めました。[160]同時に、米国、英国、およびオランダは、それらのいずれかに対する日本の攻撃の場合に、彼らの領土の共同防衛のために秘密の議論に従事した。[161]ルーズベルトはフィリピン(1946年に独立を予定しているアメリカの保護領)を強化し、アメリカが「隣国」に対する日本の攻撃に反応するだろうと日本に警告した。[161]

進歩の欠如に苛立ち、アメリカ-イギリス-オランダの制裁のピンチを感じて、日本は戦争の準備をしました。11月20日、東條英機政権下の新政府が最終提案として暫定案を提出した。それは、中国へのアメリカの援助の終了と、日本への石油やその他の資源の供給の禁止を解除することを求めた。それと引き換えに、日本は東南アジアで攻撃を開始せず、インドシナ南部から部隊を撤退させることを約束した。[160] 11月26日のアメリカの反対提案は、日本が無条件で中国全土を避難させ、すべての太平洋諸国と不可侵条約を締結することを要求した。[162]それは、日本が中国での野心を放棄するか、オランダ領東インドで必要な天然資源を強制的に奪取するかを本質的に選択することを余儀なくされたことを意味した。[163] [164]日本軍は前者を選択肢とは考えておらず、多くの将校は石油禁輸を暗黙の宣戦布告と見なしていた。[165]
日本は、アジアのヨーロッパの植民地を急速に占領して、中央太平洋に広がる大きな防御境界を作ることを計画しました。そうすれば、日本軍は、自衛戦争と戦うことによって、過度に拡大した同盟国を疲弊させながら、東南アジアの資源を自由に利用することができるでしょう。[166] [167]境界を確保しながらアメリカの介入を防ぐために、最初からアメリカ太平洋艦隊とフィリピンにおけるアメリカ軍のプレゼンスを無力化することがさらに計画された。[168] 1941年12月7日(アジアのタイムゾーンでは12月8日)、日本は東南アジアと中央太平洋に対してほぼ同時に攻撃を行い、イギリスとアメリカの領土を攻撃した。[169]これらには、真珠湾とフィリピン、グアム、ウェーク島でのアメリカ艦隊への攻撃、マレー半島への上陸[169]、 タイと香港の戦いが含まれていました。[170]
日本のタイ侵攻は、日本と同盟を結ぶというタイの決定につながり、他の日本の攻撃は、米国、英国、中国、オーストラリア、および他のいくつかの州が日本に対する戦争を正式に宣言することにつながりましたが、ソビエト連邦は深く関与しています欧州枢軸国との大規模な敵対行為において、日本との中立協定を維持した。[171]ドイツは、他の軸の状態が続き、米国との戦争を宣言した[172]正当化としてルーズベルトが発注されていたドイツの戦争船でアメリカの攻撃を引用し、日本との連帯に。[126] [173]
軸前進ストール(1942–43)

1942年1月1日、連合軍四大[174] -theソ連、中国、英国、米国、および22のより小さいまたは追放政府が発行した国連の宣言をすることにより肯定、大西洋憲章を、[175]と枢軸国との別個の和平に署名しないことに同意する。[176]
1942年、連合国の当局者は、追求する適切な大戦略について議論しました。ドイツを打ち負かすことが第一の目的であることに全員が同意した。アメリカ人は、フランスを通じたドイツへの直接的な大規模な攻撃を支持した。ソビエトはまた第二戦線を要求していました。一方、イギリス軍は、軍事作戦は周辺地域を標的にしてドイツ軍の力を消耗させ、士気喪失を増大させ、抵抗力を強化すべきであると主張した。ドイツ自体が大規模な爆撃キャンペーンの対象となるでしょう。その後、ドイツに対する攻撃は、大規模な軍隊を使用せずに、主に連合軍の鎧によって開始されます。[177]最終的に、イギリス軍はアメリカ人に、1942年にフランスに上陸することは不可能であり、代わりに北アフリカから枢軸軍を追い出すことに集中すべきであると説得した。[178]
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.[179] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.[180]
Pacific (1942–43)

By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.[181] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.[182] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.[183] Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean,[184] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha.[185] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.[186]
In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea.[187] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska.[188] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.[189][190] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.[191]

With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua.[192] The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[193]
Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona.[194] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[195] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943.[196] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.[197]
Eastern Front (1942–43)

Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.[198] In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov,[199] and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.[200]
By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,[201] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[202] By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,[203] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk.[204]
Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–43)
Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.[205] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.[206] In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February,[207] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.[208] Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942.[209] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[210] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid,[211] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.[212][page needed]
In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein[213] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[214] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[215] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.[216] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France;[216] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces.[216][217] The Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.[216][218]
In June 1943 the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and "de-house" the civilian population.[219] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.[220]
Allies gain momentum (1943–44)

After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.[221] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[222] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[223]
In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences,[224] and for the first time in the war Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.[225] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.[226]

On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,[227] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.[228][229] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensive.[230]
On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies.[231] Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,[232] and creating a series of defensive lines.[233] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic,[234] causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[235]
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.[236] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.[237] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory[238] and the military planning for the Burma campaign,[239] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.[240]

From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief.[241][242][243] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio.[244]
On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, thereby ending the most lethal siege in history.[245] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region.[246] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.[247] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June Rome was captured.[248]
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India,[249] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima.[250] In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,[250] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina.[251] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.[252] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha.[253]
Allies close in (1944)

On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,[254] the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France.[255] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle,[256] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed.[257] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.[258]

On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ("Operation Bagration") that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely.[259] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed the Polish Committee of National Liberation to control territory in Poland and combat the Polish Armia Krajowa; The Soviet Red Army remained in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula and watched passively as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Armia Krajowa.[260] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans.[261] The Soviet Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.[262]
In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.[263] By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Soviet Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945.[264] Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions,[265] although Finland was forced to fight their former ally Germany.[266]

By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[267] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road.[268] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[269] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[270] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.[271]
In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.[272]
Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)

On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along with the French-German border to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement.[273] By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.[273] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[274] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[275]
In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B.[276] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and to retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton. In two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving several unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin.

Soviet and Polish forces stormed and captured Berlin in late April. In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany,[277] Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May.
Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April.[278] Two days later, Hitler committed suicide in besieged Berlin, and he was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.[279]Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May.[280] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.[281]
In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war.[282] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.[283]

In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May.[284] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June.[285] At the same time, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.[286]
On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[287] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[288] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.[289]
The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.[290] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.[291] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.[292] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.[293]
余波

The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.[294]
Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland,[295] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces,[296][297] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line,[298] from which 2 million Poles were expelled;[297][299] north-east Romania,[300][301] parts of eastern Finland,[302] and the three Baltic states were incorporated into the Soviet Union.[303][304]

In an effort to maintain world peace,[305] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,[306] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations.[307] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council.[308] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.[309]

Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany),[310] were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence.[311] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany,[312] Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Albania[313] became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the Soviet Union.[314]
Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.[315] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.[316]
In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.[317] Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.[318]

In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949.[319] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.[320][321]
The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.[322] The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.[323] Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.[324][325]
Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.[326][327] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle.[328] Italy also experienced an economic boom[329] and the French economy rebounded.[330] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,[331] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,[332] it continued in relative economic decline for decades.[333]
The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[334] Japan recovered much later.[335] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.[336]
影響
Casualties and war crimes

Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.[337] Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians.[338][339][340] Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass bombings, disease, and starvation.
The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,[341] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.[342] A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.[343] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.[344]
An estimated 11[345] to 17 million[346] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi racist policies, including mass killing of around 6 million Jews, along with Roma, homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles[347][348] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups.[349][346] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were persecuted and murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia.[350] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.[351] At the same time about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other Polish units, in reprisal attacks.[352]

In Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million[353]), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces.[354] The most infamous Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.[355] Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.[356]
Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[357][358] and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[359] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians,[360] and sometimes on prisoners of war.[361]
The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers,[362] and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia, in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.[363]
The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II.[364] The USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65% of built-up areas.[365]
Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour

Nazi Germany was responsible for the Holocaust (which killed approximately 6 million Jews) as well as for killing 2.7 million ethnic Poles[366] and 4 million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, Romani, homosexuals, Freemasons, and Jehovah's Witnesses) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a "genocidal state".[367] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.[368][369] In addition to concentration camps, death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers; about 12 million Europeans from German occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy.[370]
The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,[371] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs.[372] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators.[373]

Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 per cent (for American POWs, 37 per cent),[374] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.[375] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.[376]
At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.[377] In Java, between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.[378]
Occupation

In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[379] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.[380]

In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[381] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions.[382] Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East[383] or the West[384] until late 1943.
In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.[385] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them.[386] During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×10 6 t), 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate.[386]
Home fronts and production
In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.[387] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.[387]
The United States produced about two-thirds of all the munitions used by the Allies in WWII, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.[388] Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.[389] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed[by whom?] to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force,[390] Allied strategic bombing,[391] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[392] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.[393] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[394] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[370] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.[377][378]
Advances in technology and warfare

Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);[395] and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).[396] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.[397] Although guided missiles were being developed, they were not advanced enough to reliably target aircraft until some years after the war.
Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.[398][399][400] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.[401] Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft[402] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[403] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War,[404] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.[405][better source needed] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious over the German submarines.[406]

Land warfare changed from the static front lines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry, to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.[407] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I,[408] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.[citation needed] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.[409] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[407] Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.[409] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[410] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.[411] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings.[411] The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.[412]

Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.[413] Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes[414] and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.[415] Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.[414][416]
Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[citation needed] Penicillin was first mass-produced and used during the war (see Stabilization and mass production of penicillin).[417]
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- Index of World War II articles
- Lists of World War II topics
- Outline of World War II
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- ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the time span most frequently cited.
引用
- ^ Weinberg 2005, p. 6.
- ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing. p. 7.
- ^ Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Förster & Gessler 2005, p. 64.
- ^ Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) Imperial Japan's World War Two Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30
- ^ Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) World War II: America at war, 1941–1945 ISBN 978-0-394-58530-7
- ^ Seagrave, Sterling (5 February 2007). "post Feb 5 2007, 03:15 PM". The Education Forum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2008. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
Americans think of WW2 in Asia as having begun with Pearl Harbor, the British with the fall of Singapore, and so forth. The Chinese would correct this by identifying the Marco Polo Bridge incident as the start, or the Japanese seizure of Manchuria earlier.
- ^ Ben-Horin 1943, p. 169; Taylor 1979, p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191.
For 1941 see Taylor 1961, p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.
There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same "European Civil War" or "Second Thirty Years War": Canfora 2006, p. 155; Prins 2002, p. 11. - ^ Beevor 2012, p. 10.
- ^ "In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII'". NPR.org.
- ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War". The International History Review. 9 (3): 368–409. doi:10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449. JSTOR 40105814 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Masaya 1990, p. 4.
- ^ "History of German-American Relations » 1989–1994 – Reunification » "Two-plus-Four-Treaty": Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, September 12, 1990". usa.usembassy.de. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Asia Times.
- ^ Ingram 2006, pp. 76–78.
- ^ Kantowicz 1999, p. 149.
- ^ Shaw 2000, p. 35.
- ^ Brody 1999, p. 4.
- ^ Zalampas 1989, p. 62.
- ^ Mandelbaum 1988, p. 96; Record 2005, p. 50.
- ^ Schmitz 2000, p. 124.
- ^ Adamthwaite 1992, p. 52.
- ^ Shirer 1990, pp. 298–99.
- ^ Preston 1998, p. 104.
- ^ Myers & Peattie 1987, p. 458.
- ^ Smith & Steadman 2004, p. 28.
- ^ Coogan 1993: "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies."
- ^ Busky 2002, p. 10.
- ^ Andrea L. Stanton; Edward Ramsamy; Peter J. Seybolt (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
- ^ Barker 1971, pp. 131–32.
- ^ Shirer 1990, p. 289.
- ^ Kitson 2001, p. 231.
- ^ Neulen 2000, p. 25.
- ^ Payne 2008, p. 271.
- ^ Payne 2008, p. 146.
- ^ Eastman 1986, pp. 547–51.
- ^ Hsu & Chang 1971, pp. 195–200.
- ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2017 – via Google Books.
- ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan"
- ^ Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. The Massacre in History. 1999, pp. 223–24
- ^ Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–99.
- ^ Hsu & Chang 1971, pp. 221–30.
- ^ Eastman 1986, p. 566.
- ^ Taylor 2009, pp. 150–52.
- ^ Sella 1983, pp. 651–87.
- ^ Beevor 2012, p. 342.
- ^ Goldman, Stuart D. (28 August 2012). "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
- ^ Timothy Neeno. "Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War". MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 24 November 2005. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
- ^ Collier & Pedley 2000, p. 144.
- ^ Kershaw 2001, pp. 121–22.
- ^ Kershaw 2001, p. 157.
- ^ Davies 2006, pp. 143–44 (2008 ed.).
- ^ Shirer 1990, pp. 461–62.
- ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002, p. 330.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 234.
- ^ Shirer 1990, p. 471.
- ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies. 52 (4): 695–722. doi:10.1080/713663077. JSTOR 153322. S2CID 144385167.
- ^ Shore 2003, p. 108.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 608.
- ^ "The German Campaign In Poland (1939)". Archived from the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
- ^ a b "The Danzig Crisis". ww2db.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ a b "Major international events of 1939, with explanation". Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 1–2.
- ^ David T. Zabecki (1 May 2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-135-81242-3.
The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate
- ^ Keegan 1997, p. 35.
Cienciala 2010, p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so." - ^ Beevor 2012, p. 32; Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 248–49; Roskill 1954, p. 64.
- ^ James Bjorkman, New Hope for Allied Shipping Archived 18 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ Zaloga 2002, pp. 80, 83.
- ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law. 52 (1): 69–84. doi:10.2307/2195670. JSTOR 2195670.
- ^ Hempel 2005, p. 24.
- ^ Zaloga 2002, pp. 88–89.
- ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible."
- ^ Liddell Hart 1977, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Bullock 1990, pp. 563–64, 566, 568–69, 574–75 (1983 ed.).
- ^ Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk, L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, pp. 186–87. Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place."
- ^ Smith et al. 2002, p. 24.
- ^ a b Bilinsky 1999, p. 9.
- ^ Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Spring 1986, pp. 207–26.
- ^ Carl van Dyke. The Soviet Invasion of Finland. Frank Cass Publishers, Portland, OR. ISBN 0-7146-4753-5, p. 71.
- ^ Hanhimäki 1997, p. 12.
- ^ Ferguson 2006, pp. 367, 376, 379, 417.
- ^ Snyder 2010, p. 118ff.
- ^ Koch 1983, pp. 912–14, 917–20.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 56.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 59.
- ^ Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 57–63.
- ^ Commager 2004, p. 9.
- ^ Reynolds 2006, p. 76.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 122–23.
- ^ Keegan 1997, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Regan 2004, p. 152.
- ^ Liddell Hart 1977, p. 48.
- ^ Keegan 1997, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, p. 207.
- ^ Umbreit 1991, p. 311.
- ^ Brown 2004, p. 198.
- ^ Keegan 1997, p. 72.
- ^ a b Murray 1983, The Battle of Britain.
- ^ a b c "Major international events of 1940, with explanation". Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 108–09.
- ^ Goldstein 2004, p. 35
- ^ Steury 1987, p. 209; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009, p. 282.
- ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999, pp. 328–30.
- ^ Maingot 1994, p. 52.
- ^ Cantril 1940, p. 390.
- ^ Skinner Watson, Mark. "Coordination With Britain". US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
- ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007, p. 179.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2001, p. 877.
- ^ Dear & Foot 2001, pp. 745–46.
- ^ Clogg 2002, p. 118.
- ^ Evans 2008, pp. 146, 152; US Army 1986, pp. 4–6
- ^ Jowett 2001, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Jackson 2006, p. 106.
- ^ Laurier 2001, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 263–76.
- ^ Gilbert 1989, pp. 174–75.
- ^ Gilbert 1989, pp. 184–87.
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参考文献
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外部リンク
- World War II (1939–1945) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- West Point Maps of the European War
- West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War
- Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 to August 1945)
- Records of World War II propaganda posters are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books
- Maps of World War II in Europe at Omniatlas